Noun vocabulary
Noun vocabulary
The “things” denoted by some nouns have parts, which may figure in the nouns’ meaning.
for example squares, circles and triangles belong together as shapes. In semantic square, circle and triangle are hyponyms of the superordinate word shape.
3.1 The has-relation
Prototypes are clear, central members of the denotation of a word. When we think ones thing and we can protypes. Prototypes among the things denoted by the English word face have eyes, a nose and a mouth. These semantic facts is listed;
A prototype face has two eyes.
A prototype face has a nose.
A prototype face has a mouth.
A prototype house has a roof.
A prototype house has a door.
A prototype house has windows.
Restricted to prototypes, the has-relation makes available entailments. Some examples are given in (3.2).
(3.2) There’s a house at the corner ⇒ ‘If it is like a prototype for house then
it has a roof ’
The child drew a face ⇒‘ If the face was prototypical, then the child
drew a mouth’
3.1.1 Pragmatic inferences from the has-relation
A noun phrase that first brings something into a conversation is usually indefinite (for example, marked by means of an indefinite article, a or an), but on second and subsequent mention of the same thing in the conversation it will be referred to by means of a definite noun phrase (marked by, for example, the definite article the), as in (3.3a, b).
(3.3) a. A: “I’ve bought a house.”
B: “Where’s the house?” (not:“Where’s a house?”)
b. C: (a child showing off a drawing): “I drawed a face.”
D: (responding to the child and commenting on the drawing): “I like the face you drew.” (not: “I like a face you drew.”)
3.1.2 Parts can have parts
Words denoting wholes bear the has-relation to the labels for their parts, but the parts can, in turn, have parts, and a whole can be a part of a larger whole, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
3.1.3 Spatial parts
A prototype thing, such as a rock, , can be said to have a top, a bottom (or base), sides and a front and back. Two points need to be noted about these words. One is that they are general: very many different kinds of thing – windows, heads, faces, feet, buses, trees, canyons, to randomly name just a few – have tops, bottoms, sides, fronts and backs.
3.1.4 Ends and beginnings
A list of some of the things that prototypically have ends is given in (3.5).
(3.5) ropes
(pieces of) string
ships (though mariners have special words for them, stern and bows)
roads
trains
planks
They also have middles. Some examples are listed in (3.6a).
(3.6) a. day, week, month, era, term, semester, century
b. conversation, demonstration, ceremony, meal, reception,
process
3.2 Hyponymy
This relation is important for describing nouns, For example, a house is one kind of building, and a factory and a church are other kinds of building; buildings are one kind of structure; dams are another kind of structure.
The pattern of entailment that defines hyponymy is illustrated in (3.8).
(3.8) a. There’s a house next to the gate.
b. There’s a building next to the gate.
c. (3.8a ⇒ 3.8b) & (3.8b ⇒ 3.8a)
If we are given (3.8b) as true information, then we cannot be sure that (3.8a) is true. It might be true, but there are other possibilities: the building next to the gate could be a barn or any other kind of building.
That is why the second half of (3.8c) has been scored out; to show that – though it could follow – (3.8a) does not have to follow from (3.8b). Terminology: building is a superordinate for house and nouns labelling other kinds of building. House, barn, church, factory, hangar and so forth are hyponyms of building.
It is possible to generalise about the pattern shown in (3.8): a sentence, such as (3.8a), containing a hyponym of a given superordinate entails a sentence that differs from the original one only in that the superordinate has been substituted for its hyponym, as in (3.8b).
3.2.1 Hierarchies of hyponyms
House is a hyponym of the superordinate building, but building is, in turn, a hyponym of the superordinate structure; and, in its turn, structure is a hyponym of the superordinate thing. A superordinate at a given level can itself be a hyponym at a higher level, as shown in Figure 3.2.
The hyponymy relation passes through intermediate levels in the hierarchy, which means that house is not only a hyponym of building, but is also a hyponym of building’s immediate superordinate, structure; and, via structure, house is also a hyponym of thing. Thing is a superordinate for all the words on lines that can be traced down from it in the hierarchy, and so on, as shown in Figure 3.3.
Please take ‘with connections’ as short for ‘with connections between its parts’. Notice that the meaning of a hyponym is the meaning of its immediate superordinate elaborated by a modifier; so the meaning of house is the meaning of building modified, in this case by the modifier ‘for living in’. Because building is itself a hyponym one level below structure, its meaning is that of structure plus a modifier, ‘with walls and a roof ’; and so on.
Incompatibility
A small hyponym hierarchy is shown in Figure 3.7
Breakfast, lunch and dinner are hyponyms of meal, their immediate superordinate word. Hyponymy is about classification:
breakfast, lunch and dinner are kinds of meal.
Incompatibility is about contrast: breakfast, lunch and dinner are different from each other within the category of meals; they are eaten at different times of day
The “things” denoted by some nouns have parts, which may figure in the nouns’ meaning.
for example squares, circles and triangles belong together as shapes. In semantic square, circle and triangle are hyponyms of the superordinate word shape.
3.1 The has-relation
Prototypes are clear, central members of the denotation of a word. When we think ones thing and we can protypes. Prototypes among the things denoted by the English word face have eyes, a nose and a mouth. These semantic facts is listed;
A prototype face has two eyes.
A prototype face has a nose.
A prototype face has a mouth.
A prototype house has a roof.
A prototype house has a door.
A prototype house has windows.
Restricted to prototypes, the has-relation makes available entailments. Some examples are given in (3.2).
(3.2) There’s a house at the corner ⇒ ‘If it is like a prototype for house then
it has a roof ’
The child drew a face ⇒‘ If the face was prototypical, then the child
drew a mouth’
3.1.1 Pragmatic inferences from the has-relation
A noun phrase that first brings something into a conversation is usually indefinite (for example, marked by means of an indefinite article, a or an), but on second and subsequent mention of the same thing in the conversation it will be referred to by means of a definite noun phrase (marked by, for example, the definite article the), as in (3.3a, b).
(3.3) a. A: “I’ve bought a house.”
B: “Where’s the house?” (not:“Where’s a house?”)
b. C: (a child showing off a drawing): “I drawed a face.”
D: (responding to the child and commenting on the drawing): “I like the face you drew.” (not: “I like a face you drew.”)
3.1.2 Parts can have parts
Words denoting wholes bear the has-relation to the labels for their parts, but the parts can, in turn, have parts, and a whole can be a part of a larger whole, as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
3.1.3 Spatial parts
A prototype thing, such as a rock, , can be said to have a top, a bottom (or base), sides and a front and back. Two points need to be noted about these words. One is that they are general: very many different kinds of thing – windows, heads, faces, feet, buses, trees, canyons, to randomly name just a few – have tops, bottoms, sides, fronts and backs.
3.1.4 Ends and beginnings
A list of some of the things that prototypically have ends is given in (3.5).
(3.5) ropes
(pieces of) string
ships (though mariners have special words for them, stern and bows)
roads
trains
planks
They also have middles. Some examples are listed in (3.6a).
(3.6) a. day, week, month, era, term, semester, century
b. conversation, demonstration, ceremony, meal, reception,
process
3.2 Hyponymy
This relation is important for describing nouns, For example, a house is one kind of building, and a factory and a church are other kinds of building; buildings are one kind of structure; dams are another kind of structure.
The pattern of entailment that defines hyponymy is illustrated in (3.8).
(3.8) a. There’s a house next to the gate.
b. There’s a building next to the gate.
c. (3.8a ⇒ 3.8b) & (3.8b ⇒ 3.8a)
If we are given (3.8b) as true information, then we cannot be sure that (3.8a) is true. It might be true, but there are other possibilities: the building next to the gate could be a barn or any other kind of building.
That is why the second half of (3.8c) has been scored out; to show that – though it could follow – (3.8a) does not have to follow from (3.8b). Terminology: building is a superordinate for house and nouns labelling other kinds of building. House, barn, church, factory, hangar and so forth are hyponyms of building.
It is possible to generalise about the pattern shown in (3.8): a sentence, such as (3.8a), containing a hyponym of a given superordinate entails a sentence that differs from the original one only in that the superordinate has been substituted for its hyponym, as in (3.8b).
3.2.1 Hierarchies of hyponyms
House is a hyponym of the superordinate building, but building is, in turn, a hyponym of the superordinate structure; and, in its turn, structure is a hyponym of the superordinate thing. A superordinate at a given level can itself be a hyponym at a higher level, as shown in Figure 3.2.
The hyponymy relation passes through intermediate levels in the hierarchy, which means that house is not only a hyponym of building, but is also a hyponym of building’s immediate superordinate, structure; and, via structure, house is also a hyponym of thing. Thing is a superordinate for all the words on lines that can be traced down from it in the hierarchy, and so on, as shown in Figure 3.3.
Please take ‘with connections’ as short for ‘with connections between its parts’. Notice that the meaning of a hyponym is the meaning of its immediate superordinate elaborated by a modifier; so the meaning of house is the meaning of building modified, in this case by the modifier ‘for living in’. Because building is itself a hyponym one level below structure, its meaning is that of structure plus a modifier, ‘with walls and a roof ’; and so on.
Incompatibility
A small hyponym hierarchy is shown in Figure 3.7
Breakfast, lunch and dinner are hyponyms of meal, their immediate superordinate word. Hyponymy is about classification:
breakfast, lunch and dinner are kinds of meal.
Incompatibility is about contrast: breakfast, lunch and dinner are different from each other within the category of meals; they are eaten at different times of day
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